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this　there　remained　forSeverus；　who　wished　to　make　himself　master　of　the　whole　empire；　twodifficulties；　one　in　Asia；　where　Niger；　head　of　the　Asiatic　army；　hadcaused　himself　to　be　proclaimed　emperor；　the　other　in　the　west　whereAlbinus　was；　who　also　aspired　to　the　throne。　And　as　he　considered　itdangerous　to　declare　himself　hostile　to　both；　he　decided　to　attack　Nigerand　to　deceive　Albinus。　To　the　latter　he　wrote　that；　being　electedemperor　by　the　Senate；　he　was　willing　to　share　that　dignity　with　him　andsent　him　the　title　of　Caesar；　and；　moreover；　that　the　Senate　had　madeAlbinus　his　colleague；　which　things　were　accepted　by　Albinus　as　true。But　after　Severus　had　conquered　and　killed　Niger；　and　settled　orientalaffairs；　he　returned　to　Rome　and　plained　to　the　Senate　that　Albinus；little　recognizing　the　benefits　that　he　had　received　from　him；　had　bytreachery　sought　to　murder　him；　and　for　this　ingratitude　he　waspelled　to　punish　him。　Afterwards　he　sought　him　out　in　France；　andtook　from　him　his　government　and　life。　He　who　will；　therefore；　carefullyexamine　the　actions　of　this　man　will　find　him　a　most　valiant　lion　and　amost　cunning　fox；　he　will　find　him　feared　and　respected　by　every　one；and　not　hated　by　the　army；　and　it　need　not　be　wondered　at　that　he；　thenew　man；　well；　because　his　supreme　renown　always　protected　him　from　thathatred　which　the　people　might　have　conceived　against　him　for　hisviolence。But　his　son　Antoninus　was　a　most　eminent　man；　and　had　very　excellentqualities；　which　made　him　admirable　in　the　sight　of　the　people　andacceptable　to　the　soldiers；　for　he　was　a　warlike　man；　most　enduring　offatigue；　a　despiser　of　all　delicate　food　and　other　luxuries；　whichcaused　him　to　be　beloved　by　the　armies。　Nevertheless；　his　ferocity　andcruelties　were　so　great　and　so　unheard　of　that；　after　endless　singlemurders；　he　killed　a　large　number　of　the　people　of　Rome　and　all　those　ofAlexandria。　He　became　hated　by　the　whole　world；　and　also　feared　by　thosehe　had　around　him；　to　such　an　extent　that　he　was　murdered　in　the　midstof　his　army　by　a　centurion。　And　here　it　must　be　noted　that　such…likedeaths；　which　are　deliberately　inflicted　with　a　resolved　and　desperatecourage；　cannot　be　avoided　by　princes；　because　any　one　who　does　not　fearto　die　can　inflict　them；　but　a　prince　may　fear　them　the　less　becausethey　are　very　rare；　he　has　only　to　be　careful　not　to　do　any　grave　injuryto　those　whom　he　employs　or　has　around　him　in　the　service　of　the　state。Antoninus　had　not　taken　this　care；　but　had　contumeliously　killed　abrother　of　that　centurion；　whom　also　he　daily　threatened；　yet　retainedin　his　bodyguard；　which；　as　it　turned　out；　was　a　rash　thing　to　do；　andproved　the　emperor's　ruin。But　let　us　e　to　modus；　to　whom　it　should　have　been　very　easy　tohold　the　empire；　for；　being　the　son　of　Marcus；　he　had　inherited　it；　andhe　had　only　to　follow　in　the　footsteps　of　his　father　to　please　hispeople　and　soldiers；　but；　being　by　nature　cruel　and　brutal；　he　gavehimself　up　to　amusing　the　soldiers　and　corrupting　them；　so　that　he　mightindulge　his　rapacity　upon　the　people；　on　the　other　hand；　not　maintaininghis　dignity；　often　descending　to　the　theatre　to　pete　with　gladiators；and　doing　other　vile　things；　little　worthy　of　the　imperial　majesty；　hefell　into　contempt　with　the　soldiers；　and　being　hated　by　one　party　anddespised　by　the　other；　he　was　conspired　against　and　killed。It　remains　to　discuss　the　character　of　Maximinus。　He　was　a　very　warlikeman；　and　the　armies；　being　disgusted　with　the　effeminacy　of　Alexander；of　whom　I　have　already　spoken；　killed　him　and　elected　Maximinus　to　thethrone。　This　he　did　not　possess　for　long；　for　two　things　made　him　hatedand　despised；　the　one；　his　having　kept　sheep　in　Thrace；　which　broughthim　into　contempt　（it　being　well　known　to　all；　and　considered　a　greatindignity　by　every　one）；　and　the　other；　his　having　at　the　accession　tohis　dominions　deferred　going　to　Rome　and　taking　possession　of　theimperial　seat；　he　had　also　gained　a　reputation　for　the　utmost　ferocityby　having；　through　his　prefects　in　Rome　and　elsewhere　in　the　empire；practised　many　cruelties；　so　that　the　whole　world　was　moved　to　anger　atthe　meanness　of　his　birth　and　to　fear　at　his　barbarity。　First　Africarebelled；　then　the　Senate　with　all　the　people　of　Rome；　and　all　Italyconspired　against　him；　to　which　may　be　added　his　own　army：　this　latter；besieging　Aquileia　and　meeting　with　difficulties　in　taking　it；　weredisgusted　with　his　cruelties；　and　fearing　him　less　when　they　found　somany　against　him；　murdered　him。I　do　not　wish　to　discuss　Heliogabalus；　Macrinus；　or　Julian；　who；　beingthoroughly　contemptible；　were　quickly　wiped　out；　but　I　will　bring　thisdiscourse　to　a　conclusion　by　saying　that　princes　in　our　times　have　thisdifficulty　of　giving　inordinate　satisfaction　to　their　soldiers　in　a　farless　degree；　because；　notwithstanding　one　has　to　give　them　someindulgence；　that　is　soon　done；　none　of　these　princes　have　armies　thatare　veterans　in　the　governance　and　administration　of　provinces；　as　werethe　armies　of　the　Roman　Empire；　and　whereas　it　was　then　more　necessaryto　give　satisfaction　to　the　soldiers　than　to　the　people；　it　is　now　morenecessary　to　all　princes；　except　the　Turk　and　the　Soldan；　to　satisfy　thepeople　rather　than　the　soldiers；　because　the　people　are　the　morepowerful。From　the　above　I　have　excepted　the　Turk；　who　always　keeps　round　himtwelve　infantry　and　fifteen　thousand　cavalry　on　which　depend　thesecurity　and　strength　of　the　kingdom；　and　it　is　necessary　that；　puttingaside　every　consideration　for　the　people；　he　should　keep　them　hisfriends。　The　kingdom　of　the　Soldan　is　similar；　being　entirely　in　thehands　of　soldiers；　follows　again　that；　without　regard　to　the　people；　hemust　keep　them　his　friends。　But　you　must　note　that　the　state　of　theSoldan　is　unlike　all　other　principalities；　for　the　reason　that　it　islike　the　Christian　pontificate；　which　cannot　be　called　either　anhereditary　or　a　newly　formed　principality；　because　the　sons　of　the　oldprince　not　the　heirs；　but　he　who　is　elected　to　that　position　by　thosewho　have　authority；　and　the　sons　remain　only　noblemen。　And　this　being　anancient　custom；　it　cannot　be　called　a　new　principality；　because　thereare　none　of　those　difficulties　in　it　that　are　met　with　in　new　ones；　foralthough　the　prince　is　new；　the　constitution　of　the　state　is　old；　and　itis　framed　so　as　to　receive　him　as　if　he　were　its　hereditary　lord。But　returning　to　the　subject　of　our　discourse；　I　say　that　whoever　willconsider　it　will　acknowledge　that　either　hatred　or　contempt　has　beenfatal　to　the　above…named　emperors；　and　it　will　be　recognized　also　how　ithappened　that；　a　number　of　them　acting　in　one　way　and　a　number　inanother；　only　one　in　each　way　came　to　a　happy　end　and　the　rest　tounhappy　ones。　Because　it　would　have　been　useless　and　dangerous　forPertinax　and　Alexander；　being　new　princes；　to　imitate　Marcus；　who　washeir　to　the　principality；　and　likewise　it　would　have　been　utterlydestructive　to　Caracalla；　modus；　and　Maximinus　to　have　imitatedSeverus；　they　not　having　sufficient　valour　to　enable　them　to　tread　inhis　footsteps。　Therefore　a　prince；　new　to　the　principality；　cannotimitate　the　actions　of　Marcus；　nor；　again；　is　it　necessary　to　followthose　of　Severus；　but　he　ought　to　take　from　Severus　those　parts　whichare　necessary　to　found　his　state；　and　from　Marcus　those　which　are　properand　glorious　to　keep　a　state　that　may　already　be　stable　and　firm。CHAPTER　XXARE　FORTRESSES；　AND　MANY　OTHER　THINGS　TO　WHICH　PRINCES　OFTEN　RESORT；ADVANTAGEOUS　OR　HURTFUL？1。　SOME　princes；　so　as　to　hold　securely　the　state；　have　disarmed　theirsubjects；　others　have　kept　their　subject　towns　by　factions；　others　havefostered　enmities　against　themselves；　others　have　laid　themselves　out　togain　over　those　whom　they　distrusted　in　the　beginning　of　theirgovernments；　some　have　built　fortresses；　some　have　overthrown　anddestroyed　them。　And　although　one　cannot　give　a　final　judgment　on　all　oneof　these　things　unless　one　possesses　the　particulars　of　those　states　inwhich　a　decision　has　to　be　made；　nevertheless　I　will　speak　asprehensively　as　the　matter　of　itself　will　admit。2。　There　never　was　a　new　prince　who　has　disarmed　his　subjects；　ratherwhen　he　has　found　them　disarmed　he　has　always　armed　them；　because；　byarming　them；　those　arms　bee　yours；　those　men　who　were　distrustedbee　faithful；　and　those　who　were　faithful　are　kept　so；　and　yoursubjects　bee　your　adherents。　And　whereas　all　subjects　cannot　bearmed；　yet　when　those　whom　you　do　arm　are　benefited；　the　others　can　behandled　more　freely；　and　this　difference　in　their　treatment；　akes　the　former　your　dependants；　and　the　latter；considering　it　to　be　necessary　that　those　who　have　the　most　danger　andservice　should　have　the　most　reward；　excuse　you。　But　when　you　disarmthem；　you　at　once　offend　them　by　showing　that　you　distrust　them；　eitherfor　cowardice　or　for　want　of　loyalty；　and　either　of　these　opinionsbreeds　hatred　against　you。　And　because　you　cannot　remain　unarmed；　itfollows　that　you　turn　to　mercenaries；　which　are　of　the　character　alreadyshown；　even　if　they　should　be　good　they　would　not　be　sufficient　todefend　you　against　powerful　enemies　and　distrusted　subjects。　Therefore；as　I　have　said；　a　new　prince　in　a　new　principality　has　alwaysdistributed　arms。　Histories　are　full　of　examples。　But　when　a　princeacquires　a　new　state；　which　he　adds　as　a　province　to　his　old　one；　thenit　is　necessary　to　disarm　the　men　of　that　state；　except　those　who　havebeen　his　adherents　in　acquiring　it；　and　these　again；　with　time　andopportunity；　should　be　rendered　soft　and　effeminate；　and　matters　shouldbe　managed　in　such　a　way　that　all　the　armed　men　in　the　state　shall　beyour　own　soldiers　who　in　your　old　state　were　living　near　you。3。　Our　forefathers；　and　those　who　were　reckoned　wise；　were　accustomed　tosay　that　it　was　necessary　to　hold　Pistoia　by　factions　and　Pisa　byfortresses；　and　with　this　idea　they　fostered　quarrels　in　some　of　theirtributary　towns　so　as　to　keep　possession　of　them　the　more　easily。　Thismay　have　been　well　enough　in　those　times　when　Italy　was　in　a　waybalanced；　but　I　do　not　believe　that　it　can　be　accepted　as　a　precept　forto…day；　because　I　do　not　believe　that　factions　can　ever　be　of　use；rather　it　is　certain　that　when　the　enemy　es　upon　you　in　dividedcities　you　are　quickly　lost；　because　the　weakest　party　will　alwaysassist　the　outside　forces　and　the　other　will　not　be　able　to　resist。　TheVeians；　moved；　as　I　believe；　by　the　above　reasons；　fostered　theGuelph　and　Ghibelline　factions　in　their　tributary　cities；　and　althoughthey　never　allowed　them　to　e　to　bloodshed；　yet　they　nursed　thesedisputes　amongst　them；　so　that　the　citizens；　distracted　by　theirdifferences；　should　not　unite　against　them。　Which；　as　we　saw；　did　notafterwards　turn　out　as　expected；　because；　after　the　rout　at　Vaila；　oneparty　at　once　took　courage　and　seized　the　state。　Such　methods　argue；therefore；　weakness　in　the　prince；　because　these　factions　will　never　bepermitted　in　a　vigorous　principality；　such　methods　for　enabling　one　themore　easily　to　manage　subjects　are　only　useful　in　times　of　peace；　but　ifwar　es　this　policy　proves　fallacious。4。　Without　doubt　princes　bee　great　when　they　overe　thedifficulties　and　obstacles　by　which　they　are　confronted；　and　thereforefortune；　especially　when　she　desires　to　make　a　new　prince　great；　who　hasa　greater　necessity　to　earn　renown　than　an　hereditary　one；　causesenemies　to　arise　and　form　designs　against　him；　in　order　that　he　may　havethe　opportunity　of　overing　them；　and　by　them　to　mount　higher；　as　by　aladder　which　his　enemies　have　raised。　For　this　reason　many　consider　thata　wise　prince；　when　he　has　the　opportunity；　ought　with　craft　to　fostersome　animosity　against　himself；　so　that；　having　crushed　it；　his　renownmay　rise　higher。5。　Princes；　especially　new　ones；　have　found　more　fidelity　and　assistancein　those　men　who　in　the　beginning　of　their　rule　were　distrusted　thanamong　those　who　in　the　beginning　were　trusted。　Pandolfo　Petrucci；　Princeof　Siena；　ruled　his　state　more　by　those　who　had　been　distrusted　than　byothers。　But　on　this　question　one　cannot　speak　generally；　for　it　variesso　much　with　the　individual；　I　will　only　say　this；　that　those　men　who　atthe　mencement　of　a　princedom　have　been　hostile；　if　they　are　of　adescription　to　need　assistance　to　support　themselves；　can　always　begained　over　with　the　greatest　ease；　and　they　will　be　tightly　held　toserve　the　prince　with　fidelity；　inasmuch　as　they　know　it　to　be　verynecessary