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the　fact　is；　that　in　recent　times　Philosophy　has　been　obliged　to　defend　the　domain　of　religion
against　the　attacks　of　several　theological　systems。　In　the　Christian　religion　God　has　revealed
Himself；　—　that　is；　he　has　given　us　to　understand　what　He　is；　so　that　He　is　no　longer　a　concealed
or　secret　existence。　And　this　possibility　of　knowing　Him；　thus　afforded　us；　renders　such
knowledge　a　duty。　God　wishes　no　narrow…hearted　souls　or　empty　heads　for　his　children；　but　those
whose　spirit　is　of　itself　indeed；　poor；　but　rich　in　the　knowledge　of　Him；　and　who　regard　this
knowledge　of　God　as　the　only　valuable　possession。　That　development　of　the　thinking　spirit；　which
has　resulted　from　the　revelation　of　the　Divine　Being　as　its　original　basis；　must　ultimately　advance　to
the　intellectual　prehension　of　what　was　presented　in　the　first　instance；　to　feeling　and
imagination。　The　time　must　eventually　e　for　understanding　that　rich　product　of　active　Reason；
which　the　History　of　the　World　offers　to　us。　It　was　for　a　while　the　fashion　to　profess　admiration　for
the　wisdom　of　God；　as　displayed　in　animals；　plants；　and　isolated　occurrences。　But；　if　it　be　allowed
that　Providence　manifests　itself　in　such　objects　and　forms　of　existence；　why　not　also　in　Universal
History？　This　is　deemed　too　great　a　matter　to　be　thus　regarded。　But　Divine　Wisdom；　i。e。　Reason。；
is　one　and　the　same　in　the　great　as　in　the　little；　and　we　must　not　imagine　God　to　be　too　weak　to
exercise　his　wisdom　on　the　grand　scale。　Our　intellectual　striving　aims　at　realising　the　conviction　that
what　was　intended　by　eternal　wisdom；　is　actually　acplished　in　the　domain　of　existent；　active
Spirit；　as　well　as　in　that　of　mere　Nature。　Our　mode　of　treating　the　subject　is；　in　this　aspect；　a
Theodicaea；　—　a　justification　of　the　ways　of　God；　—　which　Leibnitz　attempted　metaphysically　in
his　method；　i。e。　in　indefinite　abstract　categories；　—　so　that　the　ill　that　is　found　in　the　World　may　be
prehended；　and　the　thinking　Spirit　reconciled　with　the　fact　of　the　existence　of　evil。　Indeed；
nowhere　is　such　a　harmonising　view　more　pressingly　demanded　than　in　Universal　History；　and　it
can　be　attained　only　by　recognising　the　positive　existence；　in　which　that　negative　element　is　a
subordinate；　and　vanquished　nullity。　On　the　one　hand。　the　ultimate　design　of　the　World　must　be
perceived；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　the　fact　that　this　design　has　been　actually；　realised　in　it；　and　that
evil　has　not　been　able　permanently　to　assert　a　peting　position。　But　this　conviction　involves
much　more　than　the　mere　belief　in　a　superintending　or　in　“Providence。”　“Reason；”　whose
sovereignty　over　the　World　has　been　maintained；　is　as　indefinite　a　term　as　“Providence；”
supposing　the　term　to　be　used　by　those　who　are　unable　to　characterise　it　distinctly；　—　to　show
wherein　it　consists；　so　as　to　enable　us　to　decide　whether　a　thing　is　rational　or　irrational。　An
adequate　definition　of　Reason　is　the　first　desideratum；　and　whatever　boast　may　be　made　of　strict
adherence　to　it　in　explaining　phenomena；　—　without　such　a　definition　we　get　no　farther　than　mere
words。　With　these　observations　we　may　proceed　to　the　second　point　of　view　that　has　to　be
considered　in　this　Introduction。

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　II。　Essential　destiny　of　Reason

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　18

The　enquiry　into　the　essential　destiny　of　Reason　—　as　far　as　it　is　considered　in　reference　to　the
World　—　is　identical　with　the　question；　what　is　the　ultimate　design　of　the　World？　And　the
expression　implies　that　that　design　is　destined　to　be　realised。　Two　points　of　consideration　suggest
themselves：　first；　the　import　of　this　design　—　its　abstract　definition；　and　secondly；　its　realisation。

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　19

It　must　be　observed　at　the　outset；　that　the　phenomenon　we　investigate　—　Universal　History　—
belongs　to　the　realm　of　Spirit。　The　term　“World；”　includes　both　physical　and　psychical　Nature。
Physical　Nature　also　plays　its　part　in　the　World's　History；　—　and　attention　will　have　to　be　paid　to
the　fundamental　natural　relations　thus　involved。　But　Spirit；　and　the　course　of　its　development；　is　our
substantial　object。　Our　task　does　not　require　us　to　contemplate　Nature　as　a　Rational　System　in
itself　—　though　in　its　own　proper　domain　it　proves　itself　such　—　but　simply　in　its　relation　to　Spirit。
On　the　stage　on　which　we　are　observing　it；　—　Universal　History　—　Spirit　displays　itself　in　its　most
concrete　reality。　Notwithstanding　this　（or　rather　for　the　very　purpose　of　prehending　the
general　principles　which　this；　its　form　of　concrete　reality；　embodies）　we　must　premise　some
abstract　characteristics　of　the　nature　of　spirit。　Such　an　explanation；　however；　cannot　be　given
here　under　any　other　form　than　that　of　bare　assertion。　The　present　is　not　the　occasion　for　unfolding
the　idea　of　Spirit　speculatively；　for　whatever　has　a　place　in　an　Introduction；　must；　as　already
observed；　be　taken　as　simply　historical；　something　assumed　as　having　been　explained　and　proved
elsewhere；　or　whose　demonstration　awaits　the　sequel　of　the　Science　of　History　itself。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　20

We　have　therefore　to　mention　here：　

（1）　The　abstract　characteristics　of　the　nature　of　Spirit。　

（2）　What　means　Spirit　uses　in　order　to　realise　its　Idea。　

（3）　Lastly；　we　must　consider　the　shape　which　the　perfect　embodiment　of　Spirit　assumes…the　State。　

　　　　（1）　The　Abstract　Characteristics　of　the　Nature　of　Spirit

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　21

The　nature　of　Spirit　may　be　understood　by　a　glance　at　its　direct　opposite　—　Matter。　As　the
essence　of　Matter　is　Gravity；　so；　on　the　other　hand；　we　may　affirm　that　the　substance；　the　essence
of　Spirit　is　Freedom。　All　will　readily　assent　to　the　doctrine　that　Spirit；　among　other　properties；　is
also　endowed　with　Freedom；　but　philosophy　teaches　that　all　the　qualities　of　Spirit　exist　only
through　Freedom；　that　all　are　but　means　for　attaining　Freedom；　that　all　seek　and　produce　this　and
this　alone。　It　is　a　result　of　speculative　Philosophy；　that　Freedom　is　the　sole　truth　of　Spirit。　Matter
possesses　gravity　in　virtue　of　its　tendency　towards　a　central　point。　It　is　essentially　posite；
consisting　of　parts　that　exclude　each　other。　It　seeks　its　Unity；　and　therefore　exhibits　itself　as
self…destructive；　as　verging　towards　its　opposite　＇an　indivisible　point＇。　If　it　could　attain　this；　it　would
be　Matter　no　longer；　it　would　have　perished。　It　strives　after　the　realisation　of　its　Idea；　for　in　Unity　it
exists　ideally。　Spirit；　on　the　contrary；　may　be　defined　as　that　which　has　its　centre　in　itself。　It　has
not　a　unity　outside　itself；　but　has　already　found　it；　it　exists　in　and　with　itself。　Matter　has　its　essence
out　of　itself；　Spirit　is　self…contained　existence　（Bei…sich…selbst…seyn）。　Now　this　is　Freedom；
exactly。　For　if　I　am　dependent；　my　being　is　referred　to　something　else　which　I　am　not；　I　cannot
exist　independently　of　something　external。　I　am　free　on　the　contrary；　when　my　existence　depends
upon　myself。　This　self…contained　existence　of　Spirit　is　none　other　than　self…consciousness　—
consciousness　of　one's　own　being。　Two　things　must　be　distinguished　in　consciousness；　first；　the
fact　that　I　know；　secondly；　what　I　know。　In　self　consciousness　these　are　merged　in　one；　for
Spirit　knows　itself。　It　involves　an　appreciation　of　its　own　nature；　as　also　an　energy　enabling　it　to
realise　itself；　to　make　itself　actually　that　which　it　is　potentially。　According　to　this　abstract　definition
it　may　be　said　of　Universal　History；　that　it　is　the　exhibition　of　Spirit　in　the　process　of　working　out
the　knowledge　of　that　which　it　is　potentially。　And　as　the　germ　bears　in　itself　the　whole　nature　of　the
tree；　and　the　taste　and　form　of　its　fruits；　so　do　the　first　traces　of　Spirit　virtually　contain　the　whole　of
that　History。　The　Orientals　have　not　attained　the　knowledge　that　Spirit　—　Man　as　such　—　is　free；
and　because　they　do　not　know　this　they　are　not　free。　They　only　know　that　one　is　free。　But　on　this
very　account；　the　freedom　of　that　one　is　only　caprice；　ferocity　—　brutal　recklessness　or　passion；　or
a　mildness　and　tameness　of　the　desires；　which　is　itself　only　an　accident　of　Nature　—　mere　caprice
like　the　former。　—　That　one　is　therefore　only　a　Despot；　not　a　free　man。　The　consciousness　of
Freedom　first　arose　among　the　Greeks；　and　therefore　they　were　free；　but　they；　and　the　Romans
likewise；　knew　only　that　some　are　free；　—　not　man　as　such。　Even　Plato　and　Aristotle　did　not　know
this。　The　Greeks；　therefore；　had　slaves；　and　their　whole　life　and　the　maintenance　of　their　splendid
liberty；　was　implicated　with　the　institution　of　slavery：　a　fact　moreover；　which　made　that　liberty　on
the　one　hand　only　an　accidental；　transient　and　limited　growth；　on　the　other　hand；　constituted　it　a
rigorous　thraldom　of　our　mon　nature　—　of　the　Human。　The　German　nations；　under　the
influence　of　Christianity；　were　the　first　to　attain　the　consciousness；　that　man；　as　man；　is　free：　that　it
is　the　freedom　of　Spirit　which　constitutes　its　essence。　This　consciousness　arose　first　in　religion；　the
inmost　region　of　Spirit；　but　to　introduce　the　principle　into　the　various　relations　of　the　actual　world；
involves　a　more　extensive　problem　than　its　simple　implantation；　a　problem　whose　solution　and
application　require　a　severe　and　lengthened　process　of　culture。　In　proof　of　this；　we　may　note　that
slavery　did　not　cease　immediately　on　the　reception　of　Christianity。　Still　less　did　liberty　predominate
in　States；　or　Governments　and　Constitutions　adopt　a　rational　organisation；　or　recognise　freedom
as　their　basis。　That　application　of　the　principle　to　political　relations；　the　thorough　moulding　and
interperation　of　the　constitution　of　society　by　it；　is　a　process　identical　with　history　itself。　I　have
already　directed　attention　to　the　distinction　here　involved；　between　a　principle　as　such；　and
its…application；　i。e。　its　introduction　and　carrying　out　in　the　actual　phenomena　of　Spirit　and　Life。
This　is　a　point　of　fundamental　importance　in　our　science；　and　one　which　must　be　constantly
respected　as　essential。　And　in　the　same　way　as　this　distinction　has　attracted　attention　in　view　of　the
Christian　principle　of　self…consciousness　—　Freedom；　it　also　shows　itself　as　an　essential　one；　in
view　of　the　principle　of　Freedom　generally。　The　History　of　the　world　is　none　other　than　the
progress　of　the　consciousness　of　Freedom；　a　progress　whose　development　according　to　the
necessity　of　its　nature；　it　is　our　business　to　investigate。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　22

The　general　statement　given　above；　of　the　various　grades　in　the　consciousness　of　Freedom　—　and
which　we　applied　in　the　first　instance　to　the　fact　that　the　Eastern　nations　knew　only　that　one　is　free；
the　Greek　and　Roman　world　only　that　some　are　free；　whilst　we　know　that　all　men　absolutely　（man
as　man）　are　free；　—　supplies　us　with　the　natural　division　of　Universal　History；　and　suggests　the
mode　of　its　discussion。　This　is　remarked；　however；　only　incidentally　and　anticipatively；　some　other
ideas　must　be　first　explained。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　23

The　destiny　of　the　spiritual　World；　and；　—　since　this　is　the　substantial　World；　while　the　physical
remains　subordinate　to　it；　or；　in　the　language　of　speculation；　has　no　truth　as　against　the　spiritual；
—　the　final　cause　of　the　World　at　large；　we　allege　to　be　the　consciousness　of　its　own　freedom　on
the　part　of　Spirit；　and　ipso　facto；　the　reality　of　that　freedom。　But　that　this　term　“Freedom；”
without　further　qualification；　is　an　indefinite；　and　incalculable　ambiguous　term；　and　that　while　that
which　it　represents　is　the　ne　plus　ultra　of　attainment；　it　is　liable　to　an　infinity　of　misunderstandings；
confusions　and　errors；　and　to　bee　the　occasion　for　all　imaginable　excesses；　—　has　never　been
more　clearly　known　and　felt　than　in　modern　times。　Yet；　for　the　present；　we　must　content　ourselves
with　the　term　itself　without　farther　definition。　Attention　was　also　directed　to　the　importance　of　the
infinite　difference　between　a　principle　in　the　abstract；　and　its　realisation　in　the　concrete。　In　the
process　before　us；　the　essential　nature　of　freedom　…　which　involves　in　it　absolute　necessity；　—　is　to
be　displayed　as　ing　to　a　con