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§　96　The　individual　traverses　as　a　unity　various　grades　of　development；　and　remains　the　same
individual；　in　like　manner　also　does　a　people。　
§　97　The　life　of　a　people　ripens　a　certain　fruit。　But　this　fruit　does　not　fall　back　into　the　bosom　of
the　people　that　produced　it；　but　bees　a　poison…draught　to　it。　
§　98　The　principles　of　the　successive　phases　of　Spirit　that　animate　Nations；　are　only　steps　of　the
one　universal　Spirit。　
§　99　Philosophy；　as　occupying　itself　with　the　True；　has　only　to　do　with　the　eternally　present。。　




Introduction

The　subject　of　this　course　of　Lectures　is　the　Philosophical　History　of　the　World。　And　by　this　must
be　understood；　not　a　collection　of　general　observations　respecting　it；　suggested　by　the　study　of　its
records；　and　proposed　to　be　illustrated　by　its　facts；　but　Universal　History　itself。

I　cannot　mention　any　work　that　will　serve　as　a　pendium　of　the　course；　but　I　may　remark　that　in
my　The　Philosophy　of　Right　§§。　341…360；　I　have　already　given　a　definition　of　such　a　Universal
History　as　it　is　proposed　to　develop；　and　a　syllabus　of　the　chief　elements　or　periods　into　which　it
naturally　divides　itself。

To　gain　a　clear　idea　at　the　outset；　of　the　nature　of　our　task；　it　seems　necessary　to　begin　with　an
examination　of　the　other　methods　of　treating　History。　The　various　methods　may　be　ranged　under
three　heads：　

　　　　　I。　　　Original　History
　　　　　II。　　Reflective　History
　　　　　III。　Philosophical　History
　　　　　　　　　　i。　　　Reason　Governs　the　World
　　　　　　　　　　ii。　　Essential　destiny　of　Reason
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（1）　The　Abstract　Characteristics　of　the　Nature　of　Spirit
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（2）　The　Means　Spirit　Uses　to　Realize　Its　Idea
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（3）　The　Embodiment　Spirit　Assumes　…　the　State
　　　　　　　　　　iii。　The　Course　of　the　World's　History




I。Original　History

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　1

Of　the　first　kind；　the　mention　of　one　or　two　distinguished　names　will　furnish　a　definite　type。　To　this
category　belong　Herodotus；　Thucydides；　and　other　historians　of　the　same　order；　whose
descriptions　are　for　the　most　part　limited　to　deeds；　events；　and　states　of　society；　which　they　had
before　their　eyes；　and　whose　spirit　they　shared。　They　simply　transferred　what　was　passing　in　the
world　around　them；　to　the　realm　of　representative　intellect。　An　external　phenomenon　is　thus
translated　into　an　internal　conception。　In　the　same　way　the　poet　operates　upon　the　material
supplied　him　by　his　emotions；　projecting　it　into　an　image　for　the　conceptive　faculty。　These　original
historians　did；　it　is　true；　find　statements　and　narratives　of　other　men　ready　to　hand。　One　person
cannot　be　an　eye　and　ear　witness　of　everything。　But　they　make　use　of　such　aids　only　as　the　poet
does　of　that　heritage　of　an　already…formed　language；　to　which　he　owes　so　much；　merely　as　an
ingredient。　Historiographers　bind　together　the　fleeting　elements　of　story；　and　treasure　them　up　for
immortality　in　the　Temple　of　Mnemosyne。　Legends；　Ballad…stories；　Traditions　must　be　excluded
from　such　original　history。　These　are　but　dim　and　hazy　forms　of　historical　apprehension；　and
therefore　belong　to　nations　whose　intelligence　is　but　half　awakened。　Here；　on　the　contrary；　we
have　to　do　with　people　fully　conscious　of　what　they　were　and　what　they　were　about。　The　domain
of　reality　—　actually　seen；　or　capable　of　being　so　—　affords　a　very　different　basis　in　point　of
firmness　from　that　fugitive　and　shadowy　element；　in　which　were　engendered　those　legends　and
poetic　dreams　whose　historical　prestige　vanishes；　as　soon　as　nations　have　attained　a　mature
individuality。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　2

Such　original　historians；　then；　change　the　events；　the　deeds　and　the　states　of　society　with　which
they　are　conversant；　into　an　object　for　the　conceptive　faculty。　The　narratives　they　leave　us　cannot；
therefore；　be　very　prehensive　in　their　range。　Herodotus；　Thucydides；　Guieciardini；　may　be
taken　as　fair　samples　of　the　class　in　this　respect。　What　is　present　and　living　in　their　environment；　is
their　proper　material。　The　influences　that　have　formed　the　writer　are　identical　with　those　which
have　moulded　the　events　that　constitute　the　matter　of　his　story。　The　author's　spirit；　and　that　of　the
actions　he　narrates；　is　one　and　the　same。　He　describes　scenes　in　which　he　himself　has　been　an
actor；　or　at　any　rate　an　interested　spectator。　It　is　short　periods　of　time；　individual　shapes　of
persons　and　occurrences；　single　unreflected　traits；　of　which　be　makes　his　picture。　And　his　aim　is
nothing　more　than　the　presentation　to　posterity　of　an　image　of　events　as　clear　as　that　which　be
himself　possessed　in　virtue　of　personal　observation；　or　life…like　descriptions。　Reflections　are　none
of　his　business；　for　he　lives　in　the　spirit　of　his　subject；　he　has　not　attained　an　elevation　above　it。　If；
as　in　Caesar's　case；　he　belongs　to　the　exalted　rank　of　generals　or　statesmen；　it　is　the　prosecution
of　his　own　aims　that　constitutes　the　history。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　3

Such　speeches　as　we　find　in　Thucydides　（for　example）　of　which　we　can　positively　assert　that　they
are　not　bona　fide　reports；　would　seem　to　make　against　our　statement　that　a　historian　of　his　class
presents　us　no　reflected　picture；　that　persons　and　people　appear　in　his　works　in　propria　persona。
Speeches；　it　must　be　allowed；　are　veritable　transactions　in　the　human　monwealth；　in　fact；　very
gravely　influential　transactions。　It　is；　indeed；　often　said；　〃Such　and　such　things　are　only　talk〃；　by
way　of　demonstrating　their　harmlessness。　That　for　which　this　excuse　is　brought；　may　be　mere
〃talk〃；　and　talk　enjoys　the　important　privilege　of　being　harmless。　But　addresses　of　peoples　to
peoples；　or　orations　directed　to　nations　and　to　princes；　are　integrant　constituents　of　history。
Granted　such　orations　as　those　of　Pericles　—　the　most　profoundly　acplished；　genuine；　noble
statesman　—　were　elaborated　by　Thucydides；　it　must　yet　be　maintained　that　they　were　not　foreign
to　the　character　of　the　speaker。　In　the　oration　in　question；　these　men　proclaim　the　maxims　adopted
by　their　countrymen；　and　which　formed　their　own　character；　they　record　their　views　of　their
political　relations；　and　of　their　moral　and　spiritual　nature；　and　the　principle　of　their　designs　and
conduct。　What　the　historian　puts　into　their　mouths　is　no　supposititious　system　of　ideas；　but　an
uncorrupted　transcript　of　their　intellectual　and　moral　habitudes。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　4

Of　these　historians；　whom　we　must　make　thoroughly　our　own；　with　whom　we　must　linger　long；　if
we　would　live　with　their　respective　nations；　and　enter　deeply　into　their　spirit：　of　these　historians；　to
whose　pages　we　may　turn　not　for　the　purpose　of　erudition　merely；　but　with　a　view　to　deep　and
genuine　enjoyment；　there　are　fewer　than　might　be　imagined。　Herodotus　the　Father；　i。e。　the
Founder　of　History　and　Thucydides　have　been　already　mentioned。　Xenophon's　Retreat　of　the
Ten　Thousand　is　a　work　equally　original。　Caesar's　mentaries　are　the　simple　masterpiece　of
a　mighty　spirit。　Among　the　ancients；　these　annalists　were　necessarily　great　captains　and　statesmen。
In　the　Middle　Ages；　if　we　except　the　Bishops；　who　were　placed　in　the　very　centre　of　the　political
world；　the　Monks　monopolise　this　category　as　naive　chroniclers　who　were　as　decidedly　isolated
from　active　life　as　those　elder　annalists　had　been　connected　with　it。　In　modern　times　the　relations
are　entirely　altered。　Our　culture　is　essentially　prehensive　and　immediately　changes　all　events
into　historical　representations。　Belonging　to　the　class　in　question；　we　have　vivid；　simple；　clear
narrations　—　especially　of　military　transactions　—　which　might　fairly　take　their　place　with　those　of
Caesar。　In　richness　of　matter　and　fullness　of　detail　as　regards　strategic　appliances；　and　attendant
circumstances；　they　are　even　more　instructive。　The　French　〃Memoires〃　also　fall　under　this
category。　In　many　cases　these　are　written　by　men　of　mark；　though　relating　to　affairs　of　little　note。
They　not　unfrequently　contain　a　large　proportion　of　anecdotal　matter；　so　that　the　ground　they
occupy　is　narrow　and　trivial。　Yet　they　are　often　veritable　masterpieces　in　history；　as　those　of
Cardinal　Retz；　which　in　fact　trench　on　a　larger　historical　field。　In　Germany　such　masters　are　rare。
Frederick　the　Great　（Histoire　de　mon　temps）　is　an　illustrious　exception。　Writers　of　this　order
must　occupy　an　elevated　position。　Only　from　such　a　position　is　it　possible　to　take　an　extensive
view　of　affairs　—　to　see　everything。　This　is　out　of　the　question　for　him；　who　from　below　merely
gets　a　glimpse　of　the　great　world　through　a　miserable　cranny。　




II。　Reflective　History

　　　　　　　　　　　　　1。　Universal　History　…　2。　Pragmatical　History　…　3。　Critical　History　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　5

The　second　kind　of　history　we　may　call　the　reflective。　It　is　history　whose　mode　of　representation
is　not　really　confined　by　the　limits　of　the　time　to　which　it　relates；　but　whose　spirit　transcends　the
present。　In　this　second　order　strongly　marked　variety　of　species　may　be　distinguished。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　1。　Universal　History

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　6

It　is　the　aim　of　the　investigator　to　gain　a　view　of　the　entire　history　of　a　people　or　a　country；　or　of
the　world；　in　short；　what　we　call　Universal　History。　In　this　case　the　working　up　of　the　historical
material　is　the　main　point。　The　workman　approaches　his　task　with　his　own　spirit；　a　spirit　distinct
from　that　of　the　element　he　is　to　manipulate。　Here　a　very　important　consideration　will　be　the
principles　to　which　the　author　refers；　the　bearing　and　motives　of　the　actions　and　events　which　he
describes；　and　those　which　determine　the　form　of　his　narrative。　Among　us　Germans　this　reflective
treatment　and　the　display　of　ingenuity　which　it　occasions；　assume　a　manifold　variety　of　phases。
Every　writer　of　history　proposes　to　himself　an　original　method。　The　English　and　French　confess　to
general　principles　of　historical　position。　Their　standpoint　is　more　that　of　cosmopolitan　or　of
national　culture。　Among　us　each　labours　to　invent　a　purely　individual　point　of　view。　Instead　of
writing　history；　we　are　always　beating　our　brains　to　discover　how　history　ought　to　be　written。　This
first　kind　of　Reflective　History　is　most　nearly　akin　to　the　preceding；　when　it　has　no　farther　aim　than
to　present　the　annals　of　a　country　plete。　Such　pilations　（among　which　may　be　reckoned
the　works　of　Livy；　Diodorus　Siculus；　Johannes　von　Müller's　History　of　Switzerland）　are；　if　well
performed；　highly　meritorious。　Among　the　best　of　the　kind　may　be　reckoned　such　annalist　as
approach　those　of　the　first　class；　who　give　so　vivid　a　transcript　of　events　that　the　reader　may　well
fancy　himself　listening　to　contemporaries　and　eye…witnesses。　But　it　often　happens　that　the
individuality　of　tone　which　must　characterise　a　writer　belonging　to　a　different　culture；　is　not
modified　in　accordance　with　the　periods　such　a　record　must　traverse。　The　spirit　of　the　writer　is
quite　other　than　that　of　the　times　of　which　he　treats。　Thus　Livy　puts　into　the　mouths　of　the　old
Roman　kings；　consuls；　and　generals；　such　orations　as　would　be　delivered　by　an　acplished
advocate　of　the　Livian　era；　and　which　strikingly　contrast　with　the　genuine　traditions　of　Roman
antiquity　（e。g。　the　fable　of　Menenius　Agrippa）。　In　the　same　way　he　gives　us　descriptions　of　battles；
as　if　he　bad　been　an　actual　spectator；　but　whose　features　would　serve　well　enough　for　battles　in
any　period；　and　whose　distinctness　contrasts　on　the　other　hand　with　the　want　of　connection　and
the　inconsistency　that　prevail　elsewhere；　even　in　his　treatment　of　chief　points　of　interest。　The
difference　between　such　a　piler　and　an　original　historian　may　be　best　seen　by　paring
Polybius　himself　with　the　style　in　which　Livy　uses；　expands；　and　abridges　his　annals　in　those
period；　of　which　Polybius's　account　has　been　preserved。　Johann　von　Müller　has　given　a　stiff；
formal；　pedantic　aspect　of　history；　in　the　endeavour　to　remain　faithful　in　his　portraiture　to　the　times
he　describes。　We　much　prefer　the　narratives　we　find　in　old　Tschudy。　All　is　more　naive　and　natural
than　it　appears　in　the　garb　of　a　fictitious　and　affected　archaism。