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and　of　general　culture　mankind　have　bee　better；　whether　their　morality　has　been　increased；　—
morality　being　regarded　in　a　subjective　aspect　and　view；　as　founded　on　what　the　agent　holds　to　be
right　and　wrong；　good　and　evil；　not　on　a　principle　which　is　considered　to　be　in　and　for　itself　right
and　good；　or　a　crime　and　evil；　or　on　a　particular　religion　believed　to　be　the　true　one。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　74

We　may　fairly　decline　on　this　occasion　the　task　of　tracing　the　formalism　and　error　of　such　a　view；
and　establishing　the　true　principles　of　morality；　or　rather　of　social　virtue　in　opposition　to　false
morality。　For　the　History　of　the　World　occupies　a　higher　ground　than　that　on　which　morality　has
properly　its　position；　which　is　personal　character　—　the　conscience　of　individuals；　—　their　particular
will　and　mode　of　action；　these　have　a　value；　imputation；　reward　or；　punishment　proper　to
themselves。　What　the　absolute　aim　of　Spirit　requires　and　acplishes；　—　what　Providence　does；
—　transcends　the　obligations；　and　the　liability　to　imputation　and　the　ascription　of　good　or　bad
motives；　which　attach　to　individuality　in　virtue　of　its　social　relations。　They　who　on　moral　grounds；
and　consequently　with　noble　intention；　have　resisted　that　which　the　advance　of　the　Spiritual　Idea
makes　necessary；　stand　higher　in　moral　worth　than　those　whose　crimes　have　been　turned　into　the
means　—　under　the　direction　of　a　superior　principle　—　of　realising　the　purposes　of　that　principle。
But　in　such　revolutions　both　parties　generally　stand　within　the　limits　of　the　same　circle　of　transient
and　corruptible　existence。　Consequently　it　is　only　a　formal　rectitude　—　deserted　by　the　living　Spirit
and　by　God　—　which　those　who　stand　upon　ancient　right　and　order　maintain。　The　deeds　of　great
men；　who　are　the　Individuals　of　the　World's　History；　thus　appear　not　only　justified　in　view　of　that
intrinsic　result　of　which　they　were　not　conscious；　but　also　from　the　point　of　view　occupied　by　the
secular　moralist。　But　looked　at　from　this　point；　moral　claims　that　are　irrelevant；　must　not　be
brought　into　collision　with　world…historical　deeds　and　their　acplishment。　The　Litany　of　private
virtues　—　modesty；　humility；　philanthropy　and　forbearance　—　must　not　be　raised　against　them。　The
History　of　the　World　might；　on　principle；　entirely　ignore　the　circle　within　which　morality　and　the　so
much　talked　of　distinction　between　the　moral　and　the　politic　lies　—　not　only　in　abstaining　from
judgments；　for　the　principles　involved；　and　the　necessary　reference　of　the　deeds　in　question　to
those　principles；　are　a　sufficient　judgment　of　them　—　but　in　leaving　Individuals　quite　out　of　view
and　unmentioned。　What　it　has　to　record　is　the　activity　of　the　Spirit　of　Peoples；　so　that　the
individual　forms　which　that　spirit　has　assumed　in　the　sphere　of　outward　reality；　might　be　left　to　the
delineation　of　special　histories。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　75

The　same　kind　of　formalism　avails　itself　in　its　peculiar　manner　of　the　indefiniteness　attaching　to
genius；　poetry；　and　even　philosophy；　thinks　equally　that　it　finds　these　everywhere。　We　have　here
products　of　reflective　thought；　and　it　is　familiarity　with　those　general　conceptions　which　single　out
and　name　real　distinctions　without　fathoming　the　true　depth　of　the　matter；　—　that　we　call　Culture。　It
is　something　merely　formal；　inasmuch　as　it　aims　at　nothing　more　than　the　analysis　of　the　subject；
whatever　it　be；　into　its　constituent　parts；　and　the　prehension　of　these　in　their　logical　definitions
and　forms。　It　is　not　the　free　universality　of　conception　necessary　for　making　an　abstract　principle
the　object　of　consciousness。　Such　a　consciousness　of　Thought　itself；　and　of　its　forms　isolated　from
a　particular　object；　is　Philosophy。　This　has；　indeed；　the　condition　of　its　existence　in　culture；　that
condition　being　the　taking　up　of　the　object　of　thought；　and　at　the　same　time　clothing　it　with　the
form　of　universality；　in　such　a　way　that　the　material　content　and　the　form　given　by　the　intellect　are
held　in　an　inseparable　state；　—　inseparable　to　such　a　degree　that　the　object　in　question　…which；　by
the　analysis　of　one　conception　into　a　multitude　of　conceptions；　is　enlarged　to　an　incalculable
treasure　of　thought　—　is　regarded　as　a　merely　empirical　datum　in　whose　formation　thought　has　bad
no　share。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　76

But　it　is　quite　as　much　an　act　of　Thought　—　of　the　Understanding　in　particular　—　to　embrace　in　one
simple　conception　object　which　of　itself　prehends　a　concrete　and　large　significance　（as　Earth；
Man；　…Alexander　or　Caesar）　and　to　designate　it　by　one　word；　—　as　to　resolve　such　a　conception
—　duly　to　isolate　in　idea　the　conceptions　which　it　contains；　and　to　give　them　particular　names。　And
in　reference　to　the　view　which　gave　occasion　to　what　has　just　been　said；　thus　much　will　be　clear；
—　that　as　reflection　produces　what　we　include　under　the　general　terms　Genius；　Talent；　Art；
Science；　—　formal　culture　on　every　grade　of　intellectual　development；　not　only　can；　but　must　grow；
and　attain　a　mature　bloom；　while　the　grade　in　question　is　developing　itself　to　a　State；　and　on　this
basis　of　civilisation　is　advancing　to　intelligent　reflection　and　to　general　forms　of　thought；　—　as　in
laws；　so　in　regard　to　all　else。　In　the　very　association　of　men　in　a　state；　lies　the　necessity　of　formal
culture　—　consequently　of　the　rise　of　the　sciences　and　of　a　cultivated　poetry　and　art　generally。　The
arts　designated　“plastic；”　require　besides；　even　in　their　technical　aspect；　the　civilised　association
of　men。　The　poetic　art　—　which　has　less　need　of　external　requirements　and　means；　and　which　has
the　element　of　immediate　existence；　the　voice；　as　its　material　—　steps　forth　with　great　boldness　and
with　matured　expression；　even　under　the　conditions　presented　by　a　people　not　yet　united　in　a
political　bination；　since；　as　remarked　above；　language　attains　on　its　own　particular　ground　a
high　intellectual　development；　prior　to　the　mencement　of　civilisation。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　77

Philosophy　also　must　make　its　appearance　where　political　life　exists；　since　that　in　virtue　of　which
any　series　of　phenomena　is　reduced　within　the　sphere　of　culture；　as　above　stated；　is　the　Form
strictly　proper　to　Thought；　and　thus　for　philosophy；　which　is　nothing　other　than　the　consciousness
of　this　form　itself　—　the　Thinking　of　Thinking；…　the　material　of　which　its　edifice　is　to　be　constructed；
is　already　prepared　by　general　culture。　If　in　the　development　of　the　State　itself；　periods　are
necessitated　which　impel　the　soul　of　nobler　natures　to　seek　refuge　from　the　Present　in　ideal
regions；　—　in　order　to　find　in　them　that　harmony　with　itself　which　it　can　no　longer　enjoy　in　the
discordant　real　world；　where　the　reflective　intelligence　attacks　all　that　is　holy　and　deep；　which　had
been　spontaneously　inwrought　into　the　religion；　laws　and　manners　of　nations；　and　brings　them
down　and　attenuates　them　to　abstract　godless　generalities；　—　Thought　will　be　pelled　to
bee　Thinking　Reason；　with　the　view　of　effecting　in　its　own　element；　the　restoration　of　its
principles　from　the　ruin　to　which　they　had　been　brought。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　78

We　find　then；　it　is　true；　among　all　world…historical　peoples；　poetry；　plastic　art；　science；　even
philosophy；　but　not　only　is　there　a　diversity　in　style　and　bearing　generally；　but　still　more　remarkably
in　subject…matter；　and　this　is　a　diversity　of　the　most　important　kind；　affecting　the　rationality　of　that
subject…matter。　It　is　useless　for　a　pretentious　aesthetic　criticism　to　demand　that　our　good　pleasure
should　not　be　made　the　rule　for　the　matter　—　the　substantial　part　of　their　contents　—　and　to
maintain　that　it　is　the　beautiful　form　as　such；　the　grandeur　of　the　fancy；　and　so　forth；　which　fine　art
aims　at；　and　which　must　be　considered　and　enjoyed　by　a　liberal　taste　and　cultivated　mind。　A
healthy　intellect　does　not　tolerate　such　abstractions；　and　cannot　assimilate　productions　of　the　kind
above　referred　to。　Granted　that　the　Indian　Epopees　might　be　placed　on　a　level　with　the　Homeric；
on　account　of　a　number　of　those　qualities　of　form　—　grandeur　of　invention　and　imaginative　power；
liveliness　of　images　and　emotions；　and　beauty　of　diction；　yet　the　infinite　difference　of　matter
remains；　consequently　one　of　substantial　importance　and　involving　the　interest　of　Reason　which　is
immediately　concerned　with　the　consciousness　of　the　Idea　of　Freedom；　and　its　expression　in
individuals。　There　is　not　only　a　classical　form；　but　a　classical　order　of　subject…matter；　and　in　a
work　of　art　form　and　subject…matter　are　so　closely　united　that　the　former　can　only　be　classical　to
the　extent　to　which　the　latter　is　so。　With　a　fantastic；　indeterminate　material　—　the　Rule　is　the
essence　of　Reason　…the　form　bees　measureless　and　formless；　or　mean　and　contracted。　In　the
same　way；　in　that　parison　of　the　various　systems　of　philosophy　of　which　we　have　already
spoken；　the　only　point　of　importance　is　overlooked；　namely　the　character　of　that　Unity　which　is
found　alike　in　the　Chinese；　the　Eleatic；　and　the　Spinozistic　philosophy　—　the　distinction　between
the　recognition　of　that　Unity　as　abstract　and　as　concrete　—　concrete　to　the　extent　of　being　a　unity
in　and　by　itself　—　a　unity　synonymous　with　Spirit。　But　that　co…ordination　proves　that　it　recognises
only　such　an　abstract　unity；　so　that　while　it　gives　judgment　respecting　philosophy　it　is　ignorant　of
that　very　point　which　constitutes　the　interest　of　philosophy。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　79

But　there　are　also　spheres　which；　amid　all　the　variety　that　is　presented　in　the　substantial　content　of
a　particular　form　of　culture；　remain　the　same。　The　difference　above　mentioned　in　art；　science；
philosophy；　concerns　the　thinking　Reason　and　Freedom；　which　is　the　self…consciousness　of　the
former；　and　which　has　the　same　one　root　with　Thought。　As　it　is　not　the　brute；　but　only　the　man　that
thinks；　he　only　—　and　only　because　he　is　a　thinking　being　—　has　Freedom。　His　consciousness
imports　this；　that　the　individual　prehends　itself　as　a　person；　that　is；　recognises　itself　in　its　single
existence　as　possessing　universality；　—　as　capable　of　abstraction　from；　and　of　surrendering　all
speciality；　and；　therefore；　as　inherently　infinite。　Consequently　those　spheres　of　intelligence　which　lie
beyond　the　limits　of　this　consciousness　are　a　mon　ground　among　those　substantial　distinctions。
Even　morality；　which　is　so　intimately　connected　with　the　consciousness　of　freedom；　can　be　very
pure　while　that　consciousness　is　still　wanting；　as　far；　that　is　to　say；　as　it　expresses　duties　and　rights
only　as　objective　mands；　or　even　as　far　as　it　remains　satisfied　with　the　merely　formal　elevation
of　the　soul　—　the　surrender　of　the　sensual；　and　of　all　sensual　motives　—　in　a　purely　negative；
self…denying　fashion。　The　Chinese　morality　—　since　Europeans　have　bee　acquainted　with　it
and　with　the　writings　of　Confucius　—　has　obtained　the　greatest　praise　and　proportionate　attention
from　those　who　are　familiar　with　the　Christian　morality。　There　is　a　similar　acknowledgment　of　the
sublimity　with　which　the　Indian　religion　and　poetry；　（a　statement　that　must；　however；　be　limited　to
the　higher　kind）；　but　especially　the　Indian　philosophy；　expatiate　upon　and　demand　the　removal　and
sacrifice　of　sensuality。　Yet　both　these　nations　are；　it　must　be　confessed；　entirely　wanting　in　the
essential　consciousness　of　the　Idea　of　Freedom。　To　the　Chinese　their　moral　laws　are　just　like
natural　laws；　—　external；　positive　mands；　—　claims　established　by　force；　—　pulsory　duties
or　rules　of　courtesy　towards　each　other。　Freedom；　through　which　alone　the　essential；
determinations　of　Reason　bee　moral　sentiments；　is　wanting。　Morality　is　a　political　affair；　and　its
laws　are　administered　by　officers　of　government　and　legal　tribunals。　Their　treatises　upon　it　（which
are　not　law　books；　but　are　certainly　addressed　to　the　subjective　will　and　individual　disposition）
read；　—　as　do　the　moral　writings　of　the　Stoics　—　like　a　string　of　mands　stated　as　necessary　for
realising　the　goal　of　happiness；　so　that　it　seems　to　be　left　free　to　men；　on　their　part；　to　adopt