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decision。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　46

If　the　principle　of　regard　for　the　individual　will　is　recognised　as　the　only　basis　of　political　liberty；
viz。；　that　nothing　should　be　done　by　or　for　the　State　to　which　all　the　members　of　the　body　politic
have　not　given　their　sanction；　we　have；　properly　speaking；　no　Constitution。　The　only　arrangement
that　would　be　necessary；　would　be；　first；　a　centre　having　no　will　of　its　own　but　which　should　take
into　consideration　what　appeared　to　be　the　necessities　of　the　State；　and；　secondly；　a　contrivance
for　calling　the　members　of　the　State　together；　for　taking　the　votes；　and　for　performing　the
arithmetical　operations　of　reckoning　and　paring　the　number　of　votes　for　the　different
propositions；　and　thereby　deciding　upon　them。　The　State　is　an　abstraction；　having　even　its　generic
existence　in　its　citizens；　but　it　is　an　actuality；　and　its　simply　generic　existence　must　embody　itself　in
individual　will　and　activity。　The　want　of　government　and　political　administration　in　general　is　felt；
this　necessitates　the　selection　and　separation　from　the　rest　of　those　who　have　to　take　the　helm　in
political　affairs；　to　decide；　concerning　them；　and　to　give　orders　to　other　citizens；　with　a　view　to　the
execution　of　their　plans。　If；　e。g。；　even　the　people　in　a　Democracy　resolve　on　a　war；　a　general　must
head　the　army。　It　is　only　by　a　Constitution　that　the　abstraction　…　the　State　…　attains　life　and　reality；
but　this　involves　the　distinction　between　those　who　mand　and　those　who　obey。　…　Yet
obedience　seems　inconsistent　with　liberty；　and　those　who　mand　appear　to　do　the　very
opposite　of　that　which　the　fundamental　idea　of　the　State；　viz。　that　of　Freedom；　requires。　It　is；
however；　urged　that；　…　though　the　distinction　between　manding　and　obeying　is　absolutely
necessary；　because　affairs　could　not　go　on　without　it　…　and　indeed　this　seems　only　a　pulsory
limitation；　external　to　and　even　contravening　freedom　in　the　abstract　…　the　constitution　should　be　at
least　so　framed；　that　the　citizens　may　obey　as　little　as　possible；　and　the　smallest　modicum　of　free
volition　be　left　to　the　mands　of　the　superiors；　…　that　the　substance　of　that　for　which
subordination　is　necessary；　even　in　its　most　important　bearings；　should　be　decided　and　resolved　on
by　the　People　…　by　the　will　of　many　or　of　all　the　citizens；　though　it　is　supposed　to　be　thereby
provided　that　the　State　should　be　possessed　of　vigour　and　strength　as　a　reality　…　an　individual
unity。　…　The　primary　consideration　is；　then；　the　distinction　between　the　governing　and　the　governed；
and　political　constitutions　in　the　abstract　have　been　rightly　divided　into　Monarchy；　Aristocracy；
and　Democracy；　which　gives　occasion；　however；　to　the　remark　that　Monarchy　itself　must　be
further　divided　into　Despotism　and　Monarchy　proper；　that　in　all　the　divisions　to　which　the　leading
Idea　gives　rise；　only　the　generic　character　is　to　be　made　prominent；　…　it　being　not　intended　thereby
that　the　particular　category　under　review　should　be　exhausted　as　a　Form；　Order；　or　Kind　in　its
concrete　development。　But　especially　it　must　be　observed；　that　the　above…mentioned　divisions
admit　of　a　multitude　of　particular　modifications；　…　not　only　such　as　lie　within　the　limits　of　those
classes　themselves；　…　but　also　such　as　are　mixtures　of　several　of　these　essentially　distinct　classes；
and　isshapen；　unstable；　and　inconsistent　forms。　In　such　a　collision；　the
concerning　question　is；　what　is　the　best　constitution；　that　is；　by　what　arrangement；　organisation　or
mechanism　of　the　power　of　the　State　its　object　can　be　most　surely　attained。　This　object　may
indeed　be　variously　understood；　for　instance；　as　the　calm　enjoyment　of　life　on　the　part　of　the
citizens；　or　as　Universal　Happiness。　Such　aims　have　suggested　the　so…called　Ideals　of　Constitution；
and；　…　as　a　particular　branch　of　the　subject；　…　Ideals　of　the　Education　of　Princes　（Fenelon）；　or　of
the　governing　body　…　the　aristocracy　at　large　（Plato）；　for　the　chief　point　they　treat　of　is　the
condition　of　those　subjects　who　stand　at　the　head　of　affairs；　and　in　these　ideals　the　concrete　details
of　political　organisation　are　not　at　all　considered。　The　inquiry　into　the　best　constitution　is　frequently
treated　as　if　not　only　the　theory　were　an　affair　of　subjective　independent　conviction；　but　as　if　the
introduction　of　a　constitution　recognised　as　the　best；　…　or　as　superior　to　others；　…　could　be　the
result　of　a　resolve　adopted　in　this　theoretical　manner；　as　if　the　form　of　a　constitution　were　a　matter
of　free　choice；　determined　by　nothing　else　but　reflection。　Of　this　artless　fashion　was　that
deliberation；　…　not　indeed　of　the　Persian　people；　but　of　the　Persian　grandees；　who　had　conspired
to　overthrow　the　pseudo…Smerdis　and　the　Magi；　after　their　undertaking　had　succeeded；　and　when
there　was　no　scion　of　the　royal　family　living；　…　as　to　what　constitution　they　should　introduce　into
Persia；　and　Herodotus　gives　an　equally　naive　account　of　this　deliberation。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　47

In　the　present　day；　the　Constitution　of　a　country　and　people　is　not　represented　as　so　entirely
dependent　on　free　and　deliberate　choice。　The　fundamental　but　abstractly　（and　therefore
imperfectly）　entertained　conception　of　Freedom；　has　resulted　in　the　Republic　being　very　generally
regarded　…　in　theory　…　as　the　only　just　and　true　political　constitution。　Many　even；　who　occupy
elevated　official　positions　under　monarchical　constitutions　…　so　far　from　being　opposed　to　this　idea
…　are　actually　its　supporters；　only　they　see　that　such　a　constitution；　though　the　best；　cannot　be
realised　under　all　circumstances；　and　that　…　while　men　are　what　they　are　…　we　must　be　satisfied
with　less　freedom；　the　monarchical　constitution　…　under　the　given　circumstances；　and　the　present
moral　condition　of　the　people　…　being　even　regarded　as　the　most　advantageous。　In　this　view　also；
the　necessity　of　a　particular　constitution　is　made　to　depend　on　the　condition　of　the　people　in　such　a
way　as　if　the　latter　were　non…essential　and　accidental。　This　representation　is　founded　on　the
distinction　which　the　reflective　understanding　makes　between　an　idea　and　the　corresponding
reality；　holding　to　an　abstract　and　consequently　untrue　idea；　not　grasping　it　in　its　pleteness；　or　…
which　is　virtually；　though　not　in　point　of　form；　the　same　…　not　taking　a　concrete　view　of　a　people
and　a　state。　We　shall　have　to　show　further　on　that　the　constitution　adopted　by　a　people　makes　one
substance　…　one　spirit　…　with　its　religion；　its　art　and　philosophy；　or；　at　least；　with　its　conceptions　and
thoughts　…　its　culture　generally；　not　to　expatiate　upon　the　additional　influences；　ab　extra；　of
climate；　of　neighbours；　of　its　place　in　the　world。　A　State　is　an　individual　totality；　of　which　you
cannot　select　any　particular　side；　although　a　supremely　important　one；　such　as　its　political
constitution；　and　deliberate　and　decide　respecting　it　in　that　isolated　form。　Not　only　is　that
constitution　most　intimately　connected　with　and　dependent　on　those　other　spiritual　forces；　but　the
form　of　the　entire　moral　and　intellectual　individuality　…　prising　all　the　forces　it　embodies　…　is
only　a　step　in　the　development　of　the　grand　Whole；　…　with　its　place　pre…appointed　in　the　process：　a
fact　which　gives　the　highest　sanction　to　the　constitution　in　question；　and　establishes　its　absolute
necessity。　…The　origin　of　a　State　involves　imperious　lordship　on　the　one　hand；　instinctive
submission　on　the　other。　But　even　obedience　…　lordly　power；　and　the　fear　inspired　by　a　ruler　…　in
itself　implies　some　degree　of　voluntary　connection。　Even　in　barbarous　states　this　is　the　case；　it　is
not　the　isolated　will　of　individuals　that　prevails；　individual　pretensions　are　relinquished；　and　the
general　will　is　the　essential　bond　of　political　union。　This　unity　of　the　general　and　the　particular　is　the
Idea　itself；　manifesting　itself　as　a　State；　and　which　subsequently　undergoes　further　development
within　itself。　The　abstract　yet　necessitated　process　in　the　development　of　truly　independent　states　is
as　follows：　…　They　begin　with　regal　power；　whether　of　patriarchal　or　military　origin。　In　the　next
phase；　particularity　and　individuality　assert　themselves　in　the　form　of　Aristocracy　and　Democracy。
Lastly；　we　have　the　subjection　of　these　separate　interests　to　a　single　power；　but　which　can　be
absolutely　none　other　than　one　outside　of　which　those　spheres　have　an　independent　position；　viz。；
the　Monarchical。　Two　phases　of　royalty；　therefore；　must　be　distinguished；　…　a　primary　and　a
secondary　one。　This　process　is　necessitated；　so　that　the　form　of　government　assigned　to　a
particular　stage　of　development　must　present　itself：　it　is　therefore　no　matter　of　choice；　but　is　that
form　which　is　adapted　to　the　spirit　of　the　people。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　48

In　a　Constitution　the　main　feature　of　interest　is　the　self…development　of　the　rational；　that　is；　the
political　condition　of　a　people；　the　setting　free　of　the　successive　elements　of　the　Idea：　so　that　the
several　powers　in　the　State　manifest　themselves　as　separate；　…　attain　their　appropriate　and　special
perfection；　…　and　yet　in　this　independent　condition；　work　together　for　one　object；　and　are　held
together　by　it　…　i。e。；　form　an　organic　whole。　The　State　is　thus　the　embodiment　of　rational　freedom；
realising　and　recognising　itself　in　an　objective　form。　For　its　objectivity　consists　in　this；　…　that　its
successive　stages　are　not　merely　ideal；　but　are　present　in　an　appropriate　reality；　and　that　in　their
separate　and　several　working；　they　are　absolutely　merged　in　that　agency　by　which　the　totality　…　the
soul　…　the　individual　unity　…　is　produced；　and　of　which　it　is　the　result。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　49

The　State　is　the　Idea　of　Spirit　in　the　external　manifestation　of　human　Will　and　its　Freedom。　It　is　to
the　State；　therefore；　that　change　in　the　aspect　of　History　indissolubly　attaches　itself；　and　the
successive　phases　of　the　Idea　manifest　themselves　in　it　as　distinct　political　principles。　The
Constitutions　under　which　World…Historical　peoples　have　reached　their　culmination；　are　peculiar
to　them；　and　therefore　do　not　present　a　generally　applicable　political　basis。　Were　it　otherwise；　the
differences　of　similar　constitutions　would　consist　only　in　a　peculiar　method　of　expanding　and
developing　that　generic　basis；　whereas　they　really　originate　in　diversity　of　principle。　From　the
parison　therefore　of　the　political　institutions　of　the　ancient　World…Historical　peoples；　it　so
happens；　that　for　the　most　recent　principle　of　a　Constitution　…　for　the　principle　of　our　own　times　…
nothing　（so　to　speak）　can　be　learned。　In　science　and　art　it　is　quite　otherwise；　e。　g。；　the　ancient
philosophy　is　so　decidedly　the　basis　of　the　modern；　that　it　is　inevitably　contained　in　the　latter；　and
constitutes　its　basis。　In　this　case　the　relation　is　that　of　a　continuous　development　of　the　same
structure；　whose　foundation…stone；　walls；　and　roof　have　remained　what　they　were。　In　Art；　the
Greek　itself；　in　its　original　form；　furnishes　us　the　best　models。　But　in　regard　to　political　constitution；
it　is　quite　otherwise：　here　the　Ancient　and　the　Modern　have　not　their　essential　principle　in　mon。
Abstract　definitions　and　dogmas　respecting　just　government；　…　importing　that　intelligence　and　virtue
ought　to　bear　sway　…　are；　indeed；　mon　to　both。　But　nothing　is　so　absurd　as　to　look　to　Greeks；
Romans；　or　Orientals；　for　models　for　the　political　arrangements　of　our　time。　From　the　East　may　be
derived　beautiful　pictures　of　a　patriarchal　condition；　of　paternal　government；　and　of　devotion　to　it
on　the　part　of　peoples；　from　Greeks　and　Romans；　descriptions　of　popular　liberty。　Among　the　latter
we　find　the　idea　of　a　Free　Constitution　admitting　all　the　citizens　to　a　share　in　deliberations　and
resolves　respecting　the　affairs　and　laws　of　the　monwealth。　In　our　times；　too；　this　is　its　general
acceptation；　only　with　this　modification；　that　…　since　our　States　are　so　large；　and　there　are　so　many
of　〃the　Many；〃　the　latter；　…　direct　action　being　impossible；　…　should　by　the　indirect　method　of
elective　substitution　express　their　concurrence　with　resolves　affecting　the　mon　weal；　that　is；
that　for　legislative　purposes　generally；　the　people　s